For centuries, the Adoration of the Magi has captivated the brushes of artists across the globe. Particularly in the 15th and 16th centuries, countless painters—including Leonardo da Vinci (though he did not finish his version of the work)—rendered this biblical scene, each offering a unique perspective. While sharing a common theme, these works differ greatly in detail, especially in their portrayal of the three men often referred to as ‘learned scholars and kings’.
When European artists interpret this scene, they often do so through a Eurocentric lens; yet, some of the most profound masterpieces serve as windows into a period of early globalism and deep cross-cultural reverence. One such work is The Adoration of the Kings by Jan Gossaert, a revolutionary figure of the Northern Renaissance. Originally commissioned for the Lady Chapel at St. Adrian’s Abbey near Brussels, Gossaert’s monumental Nativity is now a centerpiece of the National Gallery in London.
The Adoration of the Kings (c. 1510–1515) remains one of the most intricate works of its era, marking a point where theological depth meets spectacular technical skill. Gossaert sets the Nativity among the ruins of grand, dilapidated palaces. Aklilu Mengistu, a veteran visual artist and art historian, calls this a “radical departure from traditional stable settings.”
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For Aklilu, the architecture is allegorical, symbolizing the decline of the Old Testament Law—the “old order”—and the start of the “New Covenant” established through the birth of Jesus Christ.
In Gossaert’s work, the Virgin Mary sits at the center, surrounded by the trappings of exotic royalty. She is typically dressed in a deep blue robe, holding the Christ Child in her lap—a feature which, according to Aklilu, represents a “unique composition.”
“The Composition is incredibly detailed and crowded, full onlookers, attendants, and servants in elaborate and exotic costumes. This showcase of luxurious fabrics and intricate the Kings’ gifts was a way for the Artist to display his exceptional technical skill of his time,” Aklilu comments.
Aesthetic skill is but one side of the coin. The true difficulty arises when an artist attempts to visualize history—particularly sacred history. In this realm, the challenge is not merely aesthetic; it is a complex struggle to honor the gravity of the original narrative.
Historical Accuracy vs Creative License
One challenge with historical and religious accounts is the tension between portraying a scene with historical accuracy and the creative license of the artist, which can sometimes distort the original meaning. This is particularly evident in various paintings of the Nativity.
For instance, Jesus is often portrayed as a newborn infant in such works, including that of Gossaert. However, in ecclesiastical literature—particularly the narratives of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church—the Magi did not arrive the moment Jesus was born. Having embarked on a long journey after first hearing the news, their arrival occurred much later.
This timeline is supported by the biblical account of Herod’s decree. Furious that the Magi had outwitted him, Herod ordered the execution of all male children aged two and under in Bethlehem and its vicinity. By setting the age limit at two years, as recorded in Matthew 2:16–18, theologians often conclude that Jesus was likely a toddler of approximately that age when the Magi finally reached Him.
The number and origin of the Magi who traveled to Bethlehem with gifts to honor the newborn King, as had been prophesied, is another such area where sources diverge. In much of the available literature, the number of Magi is fixed at three; yet, other traditions and texts suggest otherwise.
According to theologian Girma Batu, an Assistant Professor at Holy Trinity University and a researcher of Church history, literature within the Syrian Church often indicates there were twelve Magi in total.
“In fact, certain hermeneutical sources within the Ethiopian Church hold a similar narrative. However, the most widely accepted tradition is that the Magi were three kings,” Girma told The Reporter Magazine.
Nevertheless, it is the origins of these kings that remains the most debated aspect of the story, leaving it open to widely divergent conclusions and narratives.
Balthasar as ‘the King of Axum’
It is no wonder that the connection between the Magi’s journey and Ethiopia is deeply rooted in tradition. Ethiopian literature is divided between two accounts: one that identifies all the kings as Ethiopian (whether the three kings of the dominant narrative or the twelve of the minority view), and another that identifies only one of the three as Ethiopian.
These texts substantiate their claims with specific scriptural interpretations from the Holy Bible, most notably the Books of Isaiah and Psalms. For instance, Psalm 72:10—which prophesies that “the kings of Tarshish and of the isles shall bring presents; the kings of Sheba and Seba shall offer gifts”—is a primary citation used to support this historical and theological claim.
The most widely accepted narrative within the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church maintains that one of the Magi was King Bazen of Aksum. The Church holds an ancient and firm belief identifying the figure known in Western literature as Balthasar as this legendary King of Aksum, who reigned during the time of Christ’s birth.
he presence of King Balthasar (identified as King Bazen of Aksum in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church) remains a significant historical and theological cornerstone. Much like the account of Bacos—the eunuch mentioned in the Book of Acts who traveled to Israel during the time of the Apostles—Balthasar’s story is used to challenge the narrative of secular historians who claim Ethiopia only received Christianity in the fourth century.
Church scholars, such as Girma, utilize these accounts to assert that Ethiopia’s recognition of Christ was not a fourth-century “import” from Rome or Alexandria; rather, they argue it was a direct encounter that began at the manger in Bethlehem. These scholars note that King Bazen’s reign represents the “first fruit” of the New Testament in Ethiopia.
However, the identification of Balthasar as King Bazen does not necessarily mean it is entirely certain, though it is widely cited in the literature of the EOTC.
When art is based on religious events with diverging accounts, the artist’s role introduces a layer of subjective interpretation. An artist’s creative license—frequently influenced by their own cultural and racial perspective—can complicate the effort to represent a historical narrative with accuracy. Many paintings of the “Adoration of the Kings” reflect this tension. In examining Gossaert’s work, one must ask: how does he navigate these challenges?
The Iconography of Majesty and “Exotic” Sovereignty
While many European painters depicted this biblical scene with all the Magi portrayed as white men, a few—such as Gossaert—represented one of the kings as a dark-skinned figure. How did Gossaert convey this majesty and specific Ethiopian identity to a European audience? Aklilu identifies several visual cues and iconographic choices that distinguish Balthasar as a “ruler among rulers.”
In Gossaert’s hands, Balthasar appears as a fully sovereign figure, his status emphasized through sumptuous costume and refined detail. Balthasar wears a towering, flamboyant turban. In Gossaert’s painting, this headdress is particularly complex and decorated, even featuring the artist’s signature—a common way to denote a non-European ruler of high status.
Furthermore, Balthasar’s robes are almost always the most dazzling in the painting, showcasing brilliant colors, rich velvets, and gold-threaded patterns. According to Aklilu, this “emphasized his great wealth and the trade routes of his homeland,” linking the splendors of the Horn of Africa to the sacred scene.
Aklilu also notes that artists often incorporated subtle references to the Coptic or Ethiopian Cross into the jewelry, armor, or cloak of the African Magus. This linked the figure not just to a continent, but to the specific, ancient Christian Kingdom of Axum.
